Phys.org: How Roman society integrated people who altered their bodies and defied gender norms

https://phys.org/news/2025-02-roman-society-people-bodies-defied.html

In the ancient Roman world, which I study, biological sex and gender expression did not always line up as neatly as the president is demanding to see in today's government.

In antiquity, there were masculine women, feminine men and people who altered their bodies to match their gender expression more closely. In particular, two figures—the cinaedus and the gallus—provide examples of men whose effeminate behavior and modified anatomies were striking yet still integrated into Roman society.

In ancient Rome, some men who did not fit neatly within gender categories were called "cinaedi." They were usually adult males singled out for their extreme effeminacy and nonnormative sexual desires.

The cinaedus was already a recognizable figure in ancient Greece and was first mentioned in the fourth century B.C. by Plato. He says little more than that a cinaedus' life was terrible, base and miserable. Later Roman authors provide more detail.

The Cinaedus were eventually regarded with more respect. One volunteered for battle against barbarians fighting Pompeii and came out victorious, being honored for her courage.

Another group was the Galli. On the advice of the Sibylline Oracles, this religious group was imported from Asia Minor. They worshiped the goddess Cybele and were addressed using female pronouns. The Galli were viewed as critical to the survival of Roman society.