Worldwide wind and photovoltaic power generation have both grown substantially since the Paris Agreement was signed (+4.6 and +3.8 EJ, respectively, in 2022 compared to 2015), yet fossil fuel consumption has also increased: +19.3 EJ for natural gas (NG), +7.2 EJ for oil, and +4.3 EJ for coal. (9) While costs for wind and photovoltaic electricity generation have decreased considerably, balancing generation and demand becomes more challenging and costly as the share of intermittent renewable generation increases. (10) Electricity production from fossil fuels can provide important dispatchable generation and inertial services for power grids. (11) Based on current government energy policies, fossil fuels are expected to continue supplying most human energy consumption over the next 30 years (60–80% in 2050 (12,13)), but the associated GHG emission forecasts are inconsistent with commitments to mitigate climate change. Limiting global warming (GW) within the Paris Agreement goals would require faster growth in low-carbon energy than is currently forecast. (13)

State-of-the-art combined cycle gas turbines (CCGTs) generate electricity with direct CO2 emissions of approximately 334 kgCO2/MWh (14) and also cause substantial indirect GHG emissions and other environmental impacts. (15−17) Postcombustion carbon capture and storage (CCS) can effectively mitigate most direct emissions and is technologically ready for widespread deployment; (10,14,18) however, CCS increases other environmental impact intensities, primarily due to higher NG consumption. (15−17) Similarly, wind and photovoltaic power installations generate electricity with no direct emissions but impact the environment through their supply chains and land occupation. (10,16,17) Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an effective tool to evaluate and compare the emissions and impacts caused by electricity generation technologies at all stages of production. (10,16)